Cult

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A cult is a religious or pseudo-religious group or system dedicated to veneration, worship or devotion directed towards an idol, object, or figure. As a religious practice, a cult is the system of rituals and ceremonies by which holy figures such as deities, saints, or other figures are worshipped; such cults have existed since antiquity. On the other hand, modern usage of cult is more pejorative, describing a group having beliefs or practices regarded by others as strange or sinister. For instance, some Christian groups use the term cult to describe religious groups which claim the support of Jesus Christ or the Bible, but whose interpretations differ theologically from their own, or distort the message of the gospels. Finally, the term also refers to coercive or destructive groups created by ambitious individuals who seek to manipulate and control followers to their advantage or profit.

Although the Bahá’í Faith still remains little known to the greater public, it is not generally regarded as a cult. As an exception, members of evangelical Christian groups may refer to the Bahá’í Faith as a cult based on theological differences and perceived incompatibility with Christianity. Further, the theocratic government of Iran, where members of the religion have been brutally persecuted since its inception, devotes significant resources to depicting Bahá’í Faith as either a political group or an extremist cult.

Religious practice

The Grotto of Lourdes in France is an important site for the Catholic cult of Mary.

Main article: Ritual

In the sense of a religious practice, cult literally means the "care" (Latin cultus) owed to deities or saints and to temples, shrines, or churches. Cult is embodied in ritual and ceremony. Its present or former presence is made concrete in temples, shrines and churches, as well as cult images and votive offerings at votive sites. The Catholic cult devoted to the veneration of Mary, mother of Jesus, is a well-known example that continues into the modern day.

The Bahá’í Faith prescribes very little in terms of rituals and ceremonies; apart from daily obligatory prayers, specific actions or sequences of actions that carry religious significance are confined to major rites of passage such as weddings and funerals, and even so, the ritual components observed on these occasions are conspicuously kept to a minimum. Regarding the displaying of images, Abdu'l-Baha encouraged Bahá’ís to display the symbol of the Greatest Name of God in their homes. He also permitted them to display His portrait, but not as a cult image; the purpose of displaying His portrait was only meant to remind the Bahá’ís of the Covenant established by Bahá’u’lláh. Votive offerings do not form part of Bahá’í worship.

The Guardian of the Faith, Shoghi Effendi, made it clear that adherence to repetitive forms of worship should be avoided within the Bahá'í Faith, and the Universal House of Justice has continued this aim. This lack of obvious ritual has been noted by other observers: For instance, the Guinness Book of Records has in the past displayed an entry in which the Bahá'í Faith appears as the largest religion with no ritualised worship.

Theological "othering"

Another manner of using the term cult is to describe a religious (or pseudo-religious) group having beliefs or practices regarded by others as strange or sinister, or, in the words of author David Barrett, "'a religion I don't like.'" It is generally used in a pejorative sense, to express a group's "otherness" and the perception of its diminished legitimacy. In this sense, it is often used to criticize or demean major religious groups (such as Catholicism or Islam) that are otherwise generally regarded as legitimate, often betraying religious prejudice on the part of the user.

Around the 1930s, Christian critics of new religious movements (NRMs) began referring to them as "cults". The 1938 book The Chaos of Cults by Jan Karel van Baalen (1890–1968), an ordained minister in the Christian Reformed Church in North America, was especially influential. In the US, the Christian Research Institute was founded in 1960 by Walter Martin to counter opposition to evangelical Christianity and has come to focus on criticisms of NRMs. Presently the Christian countercult movement, which is closely associated with evangelical Christianity, opposes most NRMs because of theological differences. Writing from a Baptist perspective, author Gordon Lewis defined cults as any religious group "which claims authorization by Christ but neglects or distorts the gospel, the central message of the Savior and the Scripture". Barrett argues that this usage is meant to contrast the "true faith" of the accuser with the "false religions" of the accused.

Given their understanding of religion as being progressively revealed by a succession of Manifestation of God according to the needs of humanity during each time, Bahá’ís reject this type of "othering" as being contrary to the goal of uniting humanity. Rather, Bahá’ís are encouraged to consort with the followers of all religions in a spirit of loving fellowship.

Coercive cults

The term cult can also describe a religious (or pseudo-religious) group created by ambitious individuals or groups in order to manipulate and control followers to their advantage or profit. Such groups, termed coercive cults or destructive cults, are described by Schaefer et al. as "organizations that cut themselves off from the outside world and wield excessive power that results in the suppression, incapacitation and exploitation of believing souls, leading to their complete psychological dependency." While acknowledging the existence of such religious groups, the Bahá’í sacred writings and Bahá’í leadership make no attempt to explicitly identify them.

The United Kingdom-based Cult Information Centre describes a cult as an organization with the following characteristics:

1. Use of psychological coercion to recruit, indoctrinate and retain members;
2. Formation of an elitist and totalitarian social structure;
3. Founder leaders who are self-appointed, dogmatic, messianic, unaccountable and charismatic;
4. Belief that ends justify means in recruitment and solicitation of funds;
5. Wealth that does not benefit its members or society.

Coercion and compulsion

One common characteristic of cults is coercion and compulsion, generally carried out through psychological and emotional manipulation to exert undue influence over followers. Followers are often required to sever ties with the outside world, giving up contact with their family, friends, neighbours and co-workers and to dedicate themselves to the cult or its leadership, or both. Coercive techniques such as deprivation, isolation, and fear are used to control the behaviour of followers, along with the ritualistic confession of sins or wrongdoings in a manner that exceeds any religious function it may normally serve. Followers come to have very little interaction with non-members, and they may be forbidden to leave the organization, thus cutting off outside sources of fellowship and support. The overall result of these techniques is the degradation of the ability to think and act independently, and a shift to an external locus of control and responsibility, promoting dependence on the group and its leader.

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• How and why the Baha'i Faith is not a cult

The BITE Model developed by Steven Hassan, a mental health counsellor and researcher in the field of cults and mind control, characterizes methods used by cults to recruit and control their members. The model identifies four categories of mind control used by such groups to exert undue influence and control over individuals:

1. Behaviour control - Regulating and restricting the personal life and physical environment of members, including by coercion, threat, and force;
2. Information control - Regulating and restricting the flow of authentic information to and from members, including deception, "othering", confession, and spying;
3. Thought control - Regulating and restricting members' thoughts, including thought-stopping, hypnosis, forbidding questions or critical thinking;
4. Emotional control - Regulating and restricting members' emotions, including emphasis on guilt, unworthiness and fear.

Hassan argues that mind control is not inherently good or evil, but that it "becomes destructive when it undermines a person’s ability to think and act independently.". The ability to conduct an independent investigation of reality, prescribed by Bahá’u’lláh and identified by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá as the first principle of the Bahá’í Faith, is therefore paramount in determining whether such methods are being used for good or evil.

Coercive techniques are forbidden by Bahá’í teachings; the Báb stated that "[t]he path to guidance is one of love and compassion, not of force and coercion." instead, Bahá’ís are enjoined to teach their beliefs with 'wisdom and utterance' and people who accept the Bahá’í Faith must do so of their own free will and conscience. Baha'u'llah forbade His followers from engaging in any form of interpersonal conflict or contention, and exhorted them to strive to show friendship and fellowship to all, regardless of their background. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá explains:

“ He [Bahá’u’lláh] abrogated contention and conflict, and even rejected undue insistence. He exhorted us instead to “consort with the followers of all religions in a spirit of friendliness and fellowship”. He ordained that we be loving friends and well-wishers of all peoples and religions, and enjoined upon us to demonstrate the highest virtues in our dealings with the kindreds of the earth. ” — ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Light of the World, #32

Charismatic leadership

The object of a coercive and destructive cults is generally a living, charismatic leader who is self-appointed. This leader generally claims an exclusive connection with the Divine or unchallenged—possibly absolute—authority to expound spiritual truth, and is surrounded by an inner circle of loyal helpers. Little emphasis is placed on doctrine or theology, with much more significance given to esoteric knowledge, ritual, magic, and on personal contact with the leader rather than in institutions, written teachings, and systems of belief. The leader may display questionable ethics; for example, preaching against the use of drugs while personally consuming them. Challenges to such unethical behaviour are forestalled through deception, isolation and other coercive methods.

Notably, the dissident group formed by Leland Jensen after the defection of Charles Mason Remey was cited by Balch et al. as "a classic example" of cult formation. The Bahá’ís Under the Provision of the Covenant, as it was known, was formed after Jensen was paroled from prison in 1973, after his 1969 sentencing for sexual misconduct. Balch et al. described him as "[assuming] a messianic role to compensate for a devastating collapse of [his] self-image and social world". Jensen began making apocalyptic predictions in the years that followed, and in 1980 he advised his followers to move to nuclear bunkers. After no catastrophe ensued, he predicted in 1985 Halley's Comet would collide with Earth. Neal Chase, one of Jensen's recruits, later took up his reins and continued the string of unfulfilled apocalyptic predictions.

Wealth without benefit

Although financial contributions are a common religious practice, members of a destructive cult may be required to make significant, even unreasonable financial sacrifices. Such demands are often backed up by deception or coercive threats. When contributions are made, money paid often does not benefit members or society, instead being put towards the enrichment of the leader.

Accusations against the Bahá’í Faith

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State-sponsored media from Iran uses imagery such as the Israeli flag (center) and the image of death personified (bottom) to depict the Bahá’í Faith as either a political group or a dangerous cult.

By Iranian authorities and allies

Iranian authorities devote significant resources towards depicting the Bahá’í Faith as either a political group or a dangerous, extremist cult. Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei has on several occasions referred to the religion as a cult and forbidden contact with Bahá’ís. A 2011 report by the Bahá'í International Community titled Inciting Hatred: Iran's media campaign to demonize Bahá'ís reported on the phenomenon, citing statements made in Iranian media characterizing the Bahá’í Faith as "deviant", "misguided", and "perverse". It cited claims that the Bahá’í Faith is a "predatory cult" with "sinister" or "satanic" goals, engaging in "brainwashing", controlling followers and forbidding them from leaving the religion. The report found that in a 17-month period from December 2009 to May 2011, 277 articles appeared in state-sponsored media labelling the Bahá’í Faith as a "sect" or "cult", and 281 labelled Bahá’ís as "misguided", deviant", or "satanist". Recurring themes identified in anti-Bahá’í propaganda included the claims that Bahá’ís are actively working to undermine Islam; that they engage in offensive, "cult-like", or Satanist practices; that they were involved in (or even planned) anti-government protests on Ashura day in December 2009, including the possession of arms and ammunition; that they use brainwashing to entice Muslims away from their faith; and that they use sexually attractive young women to lure converts. The report notes that while such propaganda is "often internally contradictory or patently false", it is "designed to have the greatest possible emotional impact on the wider population". As part of their efforts, Iranian authorities have used anti-cult language common in the West, reflecting the work of psychologists who studied movements such as Sun Myung Moon's Unification Church.

Author Hamed Saburi argues that Iran's depiction of the Bahá’í Faith as a cult is "baseless" and serves to provide a legal justification for continued "repression and cruelty" against the Iranian Bahá’í community in the face of world opinion condemning its persecution of Bahá’ís. Saburi cites communications from anti-Bahá’í activist Sayyed Kazim Moosavi as well as Mohammad Javad Larijani, political adviser to Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei, in which they presented a variety of claims and accusations which he describes as either self-contradictory or simply false. For example, Larijani is recorded as citing the existence of "laws against sects/cults" in the West and in countries such as Pakistan and India as justification for the use of anti-cult laws against Bahá’ís, while ignoring "the views, acknowledgements, praise and official recognition [of the Baha’i religion] of these same sources and governments, that see Baha’is as members of a 'religion' and not a 'cult'." Speaking at a 2011 conference exploring the "othering" of the Bahá’ís of Iran, Rhoda Howard-Hassmann, professor of international human rights at Canada's Wilfrid Laurier University, characterized the accusations against Iran's Bahá’ís as "extreme retribution, if not pre-genocide."

Legally, Iranian Bahá’ís are commonly charged with articles 498 and 499 of the Islamic Penal code, citing "membership in a deviant cult" or in a "group against the state"; evidence cited often includes the holding of devotional gatherings or children's classes. Recent additions to Iran's penal code in 2021 prescribe two to five years' imprisonment for "any deviant educational or proselytizing activity that contradicts or interferes with the sacred law of Islam". Human Rights Watch reports that these "vague" provisions have been "routinely used" in legal cases against Bahá’ís, including the case of Inayatu’llah Naeimi, who was sentenced to 15 years in prison for his role in "establishing the Bahá’í network of Yaran-e-Iran and Bahá’í connections to Israel." Bahá'ís as well as the United Nations, Amnesty International, the European Union, the United States and peer-reviewed academic literature have stated that the members of the Bahá'í community in Iran have been subjected to unwarranted arrests, false imprisonment, beatings, torture, unjustified executions, confiscation and destruction of property owned by individuals and the Bahá'í community, denial of employment, denial of government benefits, denial of civil rights and liberties, and denial of access to higher education.

By Christian groups

Modern Evangelical Christian groups often oppose new religious movements based on theological differences; a group is declared a "cult" if it claims the approbation of Christ while "neglect[ing] or distort[ing] the gospel". An early treatment of the Bahá’í Faith as a "cult" in this sense was by Charles Ferguson in his 1929 book The Confusion of Tongues. In a more recent example, Gruss (2002) characterized the Bahá’í Faith as a cult, arguing that its teachings were "antithetical to biblical Christianity" and that its views were unacceptable to Christians.

In 1981, a monograph written by an embittered ex-Bahá'í, Francesco Ficicchia, was published by the Evangelische Zentralstelle für Weltanschauungsfragen (EZW; Evangelical Central Agency for World Views), a West German Protestant organization whose main purpose, as described by scholar Jack McLean, was "to protect the evangelical Protestant churches of West Germany from the invasion of oriental religions". The "gross errors and deliberate distortions" contained in the monograph—which presented an image of the Bahá'í Faith as an authoritarian cadre-dominated cult with totalitarian, fascist goals—led to the development of negative views of the religion in German-speaking Europe, particularly in academic and ecclesiastic circles. These views persisted for many years, until the publication of Making the Crooked Straight by Udo Schaefer, Nicola Towfigh and Ulrich Gollmer led to a reconsideration of the facts.

See also

• Progressive revelation#Types of religions and religious founders

References

• Barrett, David (2001). "The New Believers". London: Cassell & Co. ISBN 978-0-304-35592-1.

External links

• Jan Karel van Baalen (1956). The Chaos of Cults: A Study in Present-Day Isms.
• Kathy Roman (2018). Cults, Christianity and Cash: What the Baha’is Believe. BahaiTeachings.org.
• Maya Bohnhoff (2013). Cult Night and the Baha’i Faith. BahaiTeachings.org.

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Unported License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article Cult (religious practice).